Routine activity theory -- Cognitive theories -- Yochelson and Samenow -- Piaget, Kohlberg, moral development and offending -- Eysenck's biosocial theory -- Intelligence and offending -- Assessing psychological positivism -- Questions for further discussion -- Further reading -- Websites -- 9 Durkheim, anomie and strain -- Introduction -- Durkheim and criminology -- Durkheim and social change -- Durkheim, suicide and anomie -- Assessing Durkheim -- Merton and anomie -- Anomie and the 'American dream' -- Assessing Merton's anomie theory -- Later strain theory -- Cloward and Ohlin -- General strain theory -- Messner and Rosenfeld -- Assessing strain theory -- Questions for further discussion -- Further reading -- Websites -- 10 The Chicago School, subcultures and cultural criminology -- Introduction -- The Chicago School -- Social ecology -- Chicago School and crime -- The zonal hypothesis -- Shaw and McKay: cultural transmission -- Chicago Area Project -- Differential association -- Differential reinforcement -- Assessing the Chicago School -- Cultures and subcultures -- Albert Cohen -- Cloward and Ohlin -- David Matza -- Subcultural theory -- American subcultural theory -- British subcultural theory -- Assessing subcultural theory -- Cultural criminology -- Crime as culture -- Culture as crime -- Media dynamics of crime and control -- A critique of cultural criminology -- Questions for further discussion -- Further reading -- Websites -- 11 Interactionism and labelling theory -- Introduction -- The emergence of labelling theory -- Primary and secondary deviance -- Becker's outsiders -- Moral entrepreneurship -- 'Becoming a marijuana user' -- Stigma -- Self-fulfilling prophecy -- Deviancy amplification -- Folk Devils and Moral Panics -- Braithwaite and 'shaming' -- Assessing labelling theory -- Questions for further discussion -- Further reading