In Art, Perception, and Reality three eminent scholars explore questions relating to the nature of representation in art. Art historian E. H. Gombrich asks how we recognize likeness—in portraits or caricatures for instance—and concludes that we do so by empathy. Psychologist Julian Hochberg rejects Gombrich's argument, suggesting instead that the expectations aroused in the scanning processes of visual perception account for recognition of likeness. Finally, philosopher Max black argues that no criteria have been established for defining conditions of representation and concludes that representation is a "cluster concept."